Kilombos and Quilombos
This is a continuation on our posts about quilombos (the last post here). We’re talking about the similarities and differences between the kilombos we learned about last time and these Brasilian quilombos.
Formation and Aggregative Identity
The Imbangala institution of "kilombo," designed as a community united for military resistance, provided a crucial blueprint for the formation of Brazilian quilombos. This African model offered a framework for escaped enslaved people in Brazil to reorganize themselves for collective defense and survival. The very term "Quilombo" in Brazil is widely understood to establish a direct link to the culture of West Central Africa, the region from which the majority of enslaved individuals were forcibly brought. This connection is exemplified by the famous quilombo Palmares.
However, a significant difference emerged in the social integration strategies. While the Imbangala kilombo was a militarized society that integrated outsiders through strict initiation rites and, notably, infanticide to prevent kinship ties from undermining military cohesion, Brazilian quilombos adapted this concept by emphasizing a broader, more inclusive "aggregative identity". These Brazilian communities welcomed a diverse array of individuals beyond just escaped Africans, including Brazilian-born crioulos, Amerindians, and even white people who were not aligned with the colonial system. This shift from a lineage-rejecting, conquest-oriented model to a multi-ethnic, communal survival strategy demonstrates a profound adaptation to the unique pressures of the Brazilian slave society. The imperative for sheer numbers and diverse skills for long-term self-preservation took precedence over strict martial purity, fostering a multiethnic and pluricultural way of being, characterized by rich cultural entanglements and hybridizations.
Social Structures and Governance
Brazilian quilombos developed distinct social structures that contrasted sharply with the Imbangala model in several key aspects. They were organized according to African cultural values, characterized by a democratic political system and sustained by principles of communitarian mutual aid. Palmares, for instance, functioned as a republic, featuring democratic voting and elected village leaders. Within these communities, extended families typically clustered around agricultural plots, providing mutual support with planting, tools, and construction.
A profound divergence from the Imbangala kilombo model was the rejection of infanticide and the emphasis on fostering family structures and collective well-being. The Imbangala kilombo was "lineageless," rejecting customary kinship rites and practicing infanticide to prevent kinship from supplanting military initiation. In contrast, Brazilian quilombos did not adopt this extreme practice. While marriage and sexual morality were often established by "necessity and efficiency" in their fugitive lifestyle, the communities prioritized population growth and stability. This indicates a fundamental re-prioritization of social reproduction and the long-term sustainability of the community over the extreme militaristic purity seen in the Imbangala. The Imbangala "kilombo" was often dominated by a potentate, whereas Brazilian quilombos frequently had elected leaders, further highlighting a shift towards a more communal and democratic governance model. This transformation reflects the transition from a conquering, nomadic warrior society to a settled, self-sustaining fugitive society, where collective well-being and the perpetuation of the community were paramount.
Economically, quilombos established a collective system based on subsistence agriculture, trade, and communal land ownership, standing in stark contrast to the Western colonial plantation system and its emphasis on capitalist accumulation. For quilombolas, land was not viewed as private property to be exploited but as an integral part of their collective identity.
Resistance Strategies and Military Organization
The resistance strategies employed by Brazilian quilombos demonstrated a sophisticated adaptation of African military concepts to the unique challenges of colonial Brazil. Like the Imbangala kilombo, Brazilian quilombos were often fortified. Palmares, for example, strategically leveraged its naturally inaccessible mountain and forest location for defense. Its organization as a collection of numerous, dispersed mocambos (hideouts) allowed for a highly effective strategic defense, making it impossible for colonial forces to attack all settlements simultaneously.
Quilombolas engaged in both active defense against colonial forces (capitães do mato) and military campaigns. They also conducted offensive raids on plantations to acquire supplies and liberate more enslaved people. Their influence extended to collecting tribute from nearby villages and punishing non-collaborators, demonstrating a proactive stance in their self-preservation.
Beyond direct military confrontation, the resistance strategies of quilombos encompassed economic, social, and cultural dimensions. They achieved economic self-sufficiency through hunting, fishing, and farming, particularly manioc. They generated surpluses for trade, establishing clandestine mercantile networks with nearby settlers and tavern owners, exchanging goods for essential items like firearms, gunpowder, textiles, salt, and tools. These networks were not solely economic; they also provided crucial intelligence, contributing to the failure of many colonial expeditions against the quilombos. This ability to establish self-sufficient economies, engage in trade, gather intelligence, and develop unique martial arts like Capoeira demonstrates a sophisticated, multi-pronged approach to survival and defiance, highlighting a holistic form of resistance that challenged the very foundations of the colonial system.
Conclusion: A Reinvented Africa in Brazil
The historical origins and development of quilombo communities in Brazil reveal a profound and complex interplay of African heritage and diasporic adaptation. The term "quilombo" itself, derived from the Kimbundu "kilombo" meaning "war camp" or "encampment," directly links these Brazilian settlements to the military societies and initiation rituals of the Imbangala people of West Central Africa. This African concept provided a foundational blueprint for organized resistance and the establishment of autonomous spaces.
However, the Brazilian quilombos were far from mere replicas of their African counterparts. Driven by the critical imperative of survival and freedom in a new, hostile environment, they underwent a dynamic and creative transformation. While adopting the core idea of a fortified, militarized resistance community, Brazilian quilombos selectively integrated and radically adapted elements from diverse African traditions (including Imbangala), indigenous practices, and even aspects of colonial culture. This resulted in unique Afro-Brazilian communities characterized by a more expansive, aggregative social structure that welcomed a heterogeneous population, contrasting sharply with the Imbangala's lineage-rejecting, conquest-oriented model. The rejection of practices like infanticide and the emphasis on family structures and communal well-being highlight a fundamental re-prioritization of social reproduction and long-term sustainability over extreme militaristic purity.
In essence, Brazilian quilombos were not just places of refuge; they were active sites of cultural reinvention and self-governance. They represent a powerful testament to the enduring agency and resilience of enslaved and formerly enslaved peoples in shaping their own destiny and profoundly contributing to Brazil's multifaceted cultural identity. The ongoing struggle for land rights by contemporary quilombos underscores that this legacy of resistance and self-determination remains a vital, continuous force in modern Brazil.
Interested in learning more about capoeira? Check out our other blog posts here.